Types of Hindu Marriage: The 8 Forms (Vivah ke Prakar) and Valid, Void and Voidable Marriages
- Two meanings of “types of Hindu marriage”
- The eight forms at a glance
- The four approved forms
- The four disapproved forms
- What about swayamvara?
- Vivah ke prakar: the eight forms in Hindi
- Why the eight forms were ranked
- Types of marriage in sociology
- Types of Hindu marriage under the law
- Other routes to marriage for Hindus
- Which form is a modern Hindu wedding?
- Frequently Asked Questions
- Sources and further reading
Classical Hindu texts, most famously the Manusmriti (3.21), describe eight types of marriage, the ashta vivah: Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and Prajapatya, the four approved forms, and Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paishacha, the four disapproved ones. They are a historical classification, not law. Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the only types that matter today are valid, void and voidable marriages, decided by the conditions in section 5 and the ceremonies in section 7.
Two meanings of “types of Hindu marriage”
People searching for the types of Hindu marriage usually want one of two things. Students of history, religion and sociology want the eight classical forms described in the dharmashastra texts, the vivah ke prakar. Law students and couples want the legal categories under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. This guide covers both, starting with the eight forms and ending with what the law actually recognises.
The eight forms at a glance
| Form | Hindi name | How the marriage was made | Status in the texts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brahma | Brahma vivah | The father gives his daughter, with gifts, to a learned man of good character whom he has invited | Approved, considered the highest |
| Daiva | Daiva vivah | The daughter is given to the priest officiating at a sacrifice, as part of the ritual | Approved |
| Arsha | Arsha vivah | The groom gives a cow and a bull to the bride’s father as a token | Approved |
| Prajapatya | Prajapatya vivah | The father gives his daughter with the blessing that the two perform their duties together | Approved |
| Asura | Asura vivah | The groom pays wealth to the bride’s family and to the bride | Disapproved |
| Gandharva | Gandharva vivah | The two choose each other by mutual desire, without family arrangement | Disapproved in most texts, though accepted for some |
| Rakshasa | Rakshasa vivah | The bride is taken by force from her family | Disapproved |
| Paishacha | Paishacha vivah | A woman is taken while asleep, intoxicated or otherwise unable to consent | Condemned as the lowest |
The Manusmriti lists them in this order in chapter 3, verse 21, and the same eight appear, with small differences, in earlier texts such as the Grihya Sutras and the Dharma Sutras. The first four are called prashasta, approved; the last four aprashasta, disapproved.
The four approved forms
1. Brahma vivah
The ideal form in the texts. The bride’s father seeks out a groom who is learned in the Vedas and of good conduct, invites him, and gives his daughter in marriage, decorated and with gifts. Nothing is asked of the groom in return. Most of what a modern Hindu wedding ceremony contains, the kanyadaan, the sacred fire, the saptapadi, descends from the ritual idea behind this form, in which the father gives and the couple begin a shared life of duty.
2. Daiva vivah
Named after the devas, the gods. The daughter is given to the priest who officiates at a large sacrifice, as part of the dakshina, the fee for the ritual. It ranked below Brahma vivah because the gift was tied to the ritual rather than to the groom’s merit, and it disappeared as large Vedic sacrifices declined.
3. Arsha vivah
Named after the rishis, the sages. The groom gives the bride’s father a cow and a bull, or two pairs, which the texts are careful to describe as a religious token rather than a price. It is associated with the families of sages, for whom cattle were the main form of wealth.
4. Prajapatya vivah
Named after Prajapati, the lord of creatures. The father gives his daughter with the formal blessing that the couple should perform their dharma together. It differs from Brahma vivah mainly in emphasis: the gift is less elaborate and the focus is on the shared duty of the couple, not on the groom’s learning.
The four disapproved forms
5. Asura vivah
Named after the asuras, the demons, because the bride is in effect bought: the groom pays wealth to her family and to her. The texts disapprove of it because a daughter should not be sold. Bride price nevertheless remained common in many communities for centuries, and still survives in some regions.
6. Gandharva vivah
Named after the gandharvas, the celestial musicians. A man and a woman choose each other through mutual desire, without any arrangement by their families. The classic example is the marriage of Dushyanta and Shakuntala in Kalidasa’s play. Some texts accepted it as lawful for kshatriyas, the warrior class. It is the classical form closest to what we now call a love marriage, and our guide to love marriage vs arranged marriage covers how that choice plays out today.
7. Rakshasa vivah
Named after the rakshasas, the demons of the epics. The bride is taken by force after her family has been fought or overcome. The epics contain famous abductions, such as Krishna carrying off Rukmini, though in that story she had asked him to come for her. The texts disapproved of the form, and today abduction is a crime.
8. Paishacha vivah
Named after the pishachas, the lowest spirits. A woman is taken while she is asleep, intoxicated or otherwise unable to consent. The texts condemn it as the worst of the eight. It is listed only because the authors were classifying every way a union could come about, and they named it so that the woman and any child would still have a recognised status.
What about swayamvara?
Swayamvara, literally “self choice”, is the bride choosing her husband from assembled suitors, sometimes after a contest. The best known are the swayamvaras of Sita, won by Rama by stringing Shiva’s bow, of Draupadi, won by Arjuna in an archery contest, and of Damayanti, who chose Nala. It is not usually counted as a ninth form. Most scholars treat it as a royal variety of Gandharva vivah, since the bride makes the choice herself.
Vivah ke prakar: the eight forms in Hindi
| Prakar | Arth, the meaning in brief |
|---|---|
| Brahma vivah | Pita yogya var ko aamantrit karke kanya ka daan karta hai |
| Daiva vivah | Yagya karane wale purohit ko kanya ka daan |
| Arsha vivah | Var kanya ke pita ko gaay aur bail deta hai |
| Prajapatya vivah | Pita aashirvaad deta hai ki dono saath milkar dharm ka paalan karein |
| Asura vivah | Var kanya ke parivar ko dhan deta hai |
| Gandharva vivah | Var aur kanya apni ichchha se vivah karte hain |
| Rakshasa vivah | Kanya ka balpurvak apharan |
| Paishacha vivah | Soi hui ya behosh kanya ke saath chhal se sambandh |
Why the eight forms were ranked
The ranking reflects what the authors of the dharmashastras valued. The approved forms share three features: the bride’s father gives her, no price is paid, and the marriage is made in a religious setting. The disapproved forms each break one of those: Asura involves payment, Gandharva leaves out the family, Rakshasa and Paishacha leave out consent altogether. Sociologists often point out that the scheme also maps onto varna. The texts allot different forms as lawful for different classes, which tells us that in practice the forms reflected how different communities actually married, not just an ideal.
Types of marriage in sociology
Sociology textbooks use a different classification again, based on the number of partners and on who may marry whom. Indian examples exist for every one of them:
| Type | Meaning | Indian context |
|---|---|---|
| Monogamy | One spouse at a time | The only form permitted for Hindus since the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 |
| Polygyny | One man, more than one wife | Common among Hindu elites before 1955; now a ground for a void marriage |
| Polyandry | One woman, more than one husband | Historically among some Himalayan and Nilgiri communities, now rare |
| Endogamy | Marriage within one’s own group | The rule of marrying within caste or community |
| Exogamy | Marriage outside a defined group | The rule of marrying outside one’s gotra or clan |
| Hypergamy | A woman marrying into a higher status group | Described in the texts as anuloma marriage |
| Hypogamy | A woman marrying into a lower status group | Described in the texts as pratiloma marriage, which they disapproved of |
Types of Hindu marriage under the law
The eight forms have no legal force today. Since the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the only question the law asks is whether a marriage is valid, void or voidable. The Act applies to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs, and to anyone who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion, unless custom or another law applies. It does not apply to members of Scheduled Tribes unless the central government directs otherwise.
Valid marriage
A marriage is valid when the conditions in section 5 are met and it is solemnised with the customary rites of either party under section 7. Where those rites include the saptapadi, the marriage is complete when the seventh step is taken. The conditions are:
- Neither party has a living spouse at the time of the marriage.
- Both are capable of valid consent and are not suffering from a mental disorder that makes them unfit for marriage.
- The groom is at least 21 and the bride at least 18. See our guide to the legal age of marriage in India.
- The parties are not within the degrees of prohibited relationship, unless their custom permits it.
- The parties are not sapindas of each other, unless their custom permits it.
Void marriage
Under section 11, a marriage is void from the start, as if it never happened, if either party already had a living spouse, or if the parties are within the prohibited degrees or are sapindas without a custom permitting it.
Voidable marriage
Under section 12, a marriage is valid until a court annuls it on the petition of one party, on grounds such as:
- The marriage has not been consummated owing to the impotence of the other party.
- The other party was incapable of valid consent or unfit for marriage because of a mental disorder.
- Consent was obtained by force or by fraud about the ceremony or a material fact.
- The bride was pregnant by another man at the time of the marriage.
Registration
Section 8 of the Act allows states to provide for registration of Hindu marriages, and most now require it. Registration proves a marriage but does not create it: a marriage that is valid under section 7 is valid whether or not it is registered. Our guides to Hindu Marriage Act registration and the documents required explain the process.
Other routes to marriage for Hindus
- Special Marriage Act, 1954. A civil marriage open to anyone, required when a Hindu marries outside the religion without conversion. See our guides to the court marriage process and inter-caste and inter-religion marriage.
- Anand Marriage Act, 1909. Recognises the Sikh Anand Karaj ceremony, explained in our Anand Karaj guide.
- Customary marriages. Section 7 accepts the customary rites of either party, which is why a valid Hindu marriage need not involve a Vedic fire ceremony if the community’s custom is different.
Which form is a modern Hindu wedding?
A typical Hindu wedding today combines elements of several forms. The ritual, with kanyadaan, the sacred fire and the seven steps, follows the Brahma and Prajapatya pattern. The choice, in an age when the couple must consent and often choose each other, owes more to Gandharva. And the law ignores the classical scheme altogether, asking only whether the conditions and ceremonies have been met. Our guides to mangal phera and the wedding muhurat explain how the ritual side is planned.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the 8 types of Hindu marriage?
Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paishacha, as listed in the Manusmriti (3.21). The first four are approved and the last four disapproved.
Which is the best form of Hindu marriage?
The texts rank Brahma vivah highest: the father invites a learned man of good character and gives his daughter with gifts, asking nothing in return.
Which type of Hindu marriage is a love marriage?
Gandharva vivah, in which the man and woman choose each other through mutual desire without a family arrangement, is the classical form closest to a love marriage.
What is vivah ke prakar?
Hindi for the types of marriage. It refers to the eight classical forms, from Brahma vivah to Paishacha vivah.
Are the eight forms of marriage legally valid today?
No. Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, a marriage is valid if it meets the conditions in section 5 and is performed with the customary rites of either party. The classical forms have no legal effect.
What are void and voidable Hindu marriages?
A void marriage, under section 11, never legally existed, for example bigamy. A voidable marriage, under section 12, is valid until a court annuls it, for example where consent was obtained by force or fraud.
Sources and further reading
- India Code: The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
- Encyclopaedia Britannica: Manusmriti
- Wikipedia: Hindu wedding
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